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Guiding Principles
Before defining objectives and the actions needed to achieve
them, it is important to establish the principles that underlie
the development and implementation of any national, integrated
policy or strategy for the protection and conservation of the
marine environment.
All human interactions with, and stewardship of the marine environment
should be guided by principles including:
Intrinsic, intangible and social values
Life in all its manifestations has intrinsic value. Richness
and diversity in nature is essential to the well-being of human
and non-human life alike. Although qualities such as intrinsic
worth, wilderness, spiritual value, well-being, social value and
ecosystem health are not as easy to quantify as the value of economic
use, they are no less important to people, individually and collectively.
The marine environment and its biodiversity are too valuable to
be measured in monetary terms or to have their exploitation left
to market forces.
The sea is an important and often overlooked facet of Ireland's
unique identity and the well-being of its coastal communities.
As an island people, the Irish have long had a cultural as well
as physical relationship with the seas and coasts.
Many people have strong feelings of connection with the marine
environment. Some would describe their connection as spiritual.
Value is placed on the spaciousness, vastness, silence, power,
wilderness and otherworldliness of the sea. For many of us, such
values form part of our worldview, and are commonly translated
into personal practices of conservation and care.
We use and value the sea and coast for a variety of non-economic
reasons, which ultimately enhance our lifestyles. Of those who
connect directly with the seas and coasts, recreational and leisure
users are, and will remain, by far the most numerous. Whether
swimming, sailing, diving, surfing, fishing, building sandcastles,
playing ball games, quietly walking on the beach or just looking
out to sea — for many of us, this use of the marine environment
brings with it a sense of well-being variously described as peace,
relaxation, calm, pleasure, invigoration and renewal. It is a
life-long experience and one that we wish to be available to our
children and future generations.
Many of us also share an increasing sense of deep concern and
foreboding about the health of the marine environment, particularly
in relation to water quality and negative impacts of human activities
on wildlife and habitats.
We believe — and, in many cases, are supported by incontrovertible
scientific evidence — that present human interference with
the marine environment is excessive, and that the integrity of
the marine environment can only be preserved if human pressure
on it is reduced and natural processes allowed to re-establish
themselves.
Policy-making, planning and decision-making and the resulting
management processes must accommodate these values.
Duty of care
All levels of government, business and civic society have a
duty to intervene on behalf of the marine environment with measures
to ensure that exploitation does not result in harm to the maintenance
of natural processes and the ecological balance.
Sustainable use
The actions of people today to meet their own needs must not
compromise the ability of future generations to meet their own
needs. In the case of the oceans and seas, this means guaranteeing
that the human use of, or interaction with both the living and
non-living parts (resources) of the marine environment can be
sustained in perpetuity without causing environmental degradation
or harm to the maintenance of natural processes and the ecological
balance, or otherwise compromising the integrity and health of
the marine environment, coastal communities and all sections of
society that directly or indirectly derive benefit from the marine
environment.
Regarding non-renewable marine resources, exploitation must take
place in a timeframe that allows for the development of sustainable
alternatives, and should not result in environmental degradation
or harm to the maintenance of natural processes. Processes and
environments that are of no obvious present use to humans must
be protected equally with those that are.
Sustainable development requires that the total per capita consumption
and environmental impact (footprint) of individuals must be reduced
if we are to ensure that qualitative improvements in the environment
are not compensated for by the quantitative growth of human activities
that have an adverse effect on the environment.
Protection and conservation of ecosystems and
biodiversity
Protecting against potential adverse effects arising from human
activities, while conserving ecosystems and biodiversity and their
components such as certain species, populations, habitats, sites
or ecological processes, as well as contributing to the conservation
of global ecosystems and biodiversity.
Restoration of ecosystems and biodiversity
Where practicable, placing ecosystems and biodiversity and their
components that have been adversely affected by human activities
onto a path of recovery that restores the oceans and seas to a
healthy state.
Integrated management
To deal with environmental problems through an integrated ecosystem-based
approach to management, based on the precautionary principle,
and focused on the re-establishment of natural processes; to deal
with the sea, coastal and catchment areas together ensuring that
co-operation in planning and management is affected at all levels
of government and within all sectors of the economy; to integrate
a formal environmental duty into the remit of all national Departments
of State and other State organisations; to ensure that problems
are considered together and common policies developed and implemented
in all affected areas; and to integrate environmental considerations
into the decision-making structures in all sectors of the economy.
Ecosystem approach
Integrated management of land, water and living resources in
a manner that promotes conservation and sustainable use in an
equitable way. The ecosystem approach is based on the application
of appropriate scientific methodologies focused on levels of biological
organisation that encompass the essential processes, functions
and interactions among organisms and their environment. It recognises
that humans, with their cultural diversity, are an integral component
of ecosystems.
The general intention is that management decisions should consider
all consequences of human activities for the marine environment
in an integrated way based on best available scientific knowledge
about the ecosystem and its dynamics, in order to identify and
take action on influences that are critical to the health of marine
ecosystems, thereby achieving sustainable use of ecosystem goods
and services, and maintenance of ecosystem integrity.
The following twelve principles of the ecosystem approach are
complementary and interlinked:
1) The objectives of management of land, water and living resources
are a matter of societal choice.
2) Management should be decentralised to the lowest appropriate
level.
3) Ecosystem managers should consider the effects (actual or
potential) of their activities on adjacent and other ecosystems.
4) Recognising potential gains from management, there is usually
a need to understand and manage the ecosystem in an economic context.
Any such ecosystem-management programme should: reduce those market
distortions that adversely affect biological diversity; align
incentives to promote biodiversity conservation and sustainable
use; and internalise costs and benefits in the given ecosystem
to the extent feasible.
5) Conservation of ecosystem structure and functioning, in order
to maintain ecosystem services, should be a priority target of
the ecosystem approach.
6) Ecosystems must be managed within the limits of their functioning.
7) The ecosystem approach should be undertaken at the appropriate
spatial and temporal scales.
8) Recognising the varying temporal scales and lag-effects that
characterise ecosystem processes, objectives for ecosystem management
should be set for the long term.
9) Management must recognise that change is inevitable.
10) The ecosystem approach should seek the appropriate balance
between, and integration of, conservation and use of biological
diversity.
11) The ecosystem approach should consider all forms of relevant
information, including scientific and indigenous and local knowledge,
innovations and practices.
12) The ecosystem approach should involve all relevant sectors
of society and scientific disciplines.
Precautionary action
Sensibly erring on the side of caution where the scientific
evidence is not conclusive. That is, to ensure that appropriate
avoidance and preventative measures are taken when there is reason
to believe that substances or energy introduced into the marine
environment or activities taking place in the marine environment
are likely to cause harm even when there is no conclusive evidence
to prove a causal relationship between inputs/activities and effects.
To be precautionary, policy-making, planning, decision-making
and the resulting management processes must recognise the limitations
of knowledge. To be alert to, and humble about the potential gaps
in knowledge that are included in our decision-making process
is fundamental. Where knowledge levels are simply not good enough
to predict environmental impact, the precautionary principle confers
an approach that minimises risk.
The principle of precautionary action requires that:
- lack of scientific certainty regarding cause and effect is
not used as a reason for deferring measures to prevent harm
to the environment. Science, while important in providing evidence
of effect, is no longer required to provide proof of a causal
link between pollutant/disturbing activity and effect, and where
no clear evidence is available one way or the other the environment
must be given the benefit of the doubt;
- the environmental implications of each and every planned activity
are considered first - the use of the "economic availability"
reservation in the application of precautionary measures, e.g.
when considering the adoption of clean or cleaner technology/production
processes, is inconsistent with this, and must be abandoned;
- the burden of proof is shifted from the regulator to the person
or persons responsible for the potentially harmful activity,
who will now have to demonstrate that their actions are/will
not cause harm to the environment;
- if the worst case scenario for a certain activity is serious
enough then even a small amount of doubt as to the safety of
that activity is sufficient to stop it taking place;
- potentially harmful activities are avoided where, either public
debate has not concluded the activity to be a social necessity,
or less harmful alternatives exist (this is sometimes referred
to as the principle of avoidance, but is a key feature of the
principle of precautionary action and a logical consequence
of a clean production approach).
The primary means of applying the principle of precautionary
action is through the adoption of clean production methods, the
establishment of environmental management systems and the use
of environmental impact assessment (EIA).
Robust science
Expanding knowledge of marine life and habitats, and understanding
how marine ecosystems work as well as the processes and influences,
including human activities, which impact on the marine environment.
It means using carefully targeted research to provide a firm basis
to inform policy-making, precautionary decision-making, planning
and marine management, and to better monitor the effectiveness
of measures already taken to protect the marine environment and
to make any necessary changes to management systems and processes
in a timely manner.
However, the number and complexity of damaging activities (actual
and potential), the complexity of natural systems, and possible
chaotic/synergistic effects mean that, in general, further scientific
research is unlikely ever to be able to fully predict, with sufficient
accuracy to determine safety, the effect of many human activities
on the natural environment.
Avoidance and prevention
When and wherever possible, potential environmental problems
should be avoided and prevented using all appropriate means. Where
such means are absent or deficient, they should be developed,
implemented and improved, as appropriate.
Rectification at source
Environmental problems should be rectified at source, or as
close to source as possible.
Clean production
Clean Production is the conceptual and procedural approach
to production that demands that all phases of the life-cycle of
a product or of a process should be addressed with the objective
of prevention or the minimisation of short and long-term risks
to humans and to the environment. A total societal commitment
is required for effecting this comprehensive approach to achieving
the goal of sustainable societies. [1]
Individual and collective needs can and must be met using methods
that are compatible with the Earth's ecosystems. But it requires
a rethinking and retooling of each societal activity — for
growing food, distributing water, supplying energy, manufacturing
and transporting goods and so on. These activities must be non-polluting,
preserve diversity in nature and culture and support the ability
of future generations to meet their needs.
Clean production systems follow these principles. They are designed
to employ only reusable and renewable raw materials and to conserve
energy, water, soil and other raw materials. The use and manufacture
of hazardous substances is avoided and so is the generation of
toxic waste.
From the initial planning stage onwards, a clean production approach
strives for social equality and justice in all communities where
resources are extracted, goods are manufactured and services provided.
The labour force and local residents have a decisive say in matters
effecting their economy, health, environment and culture.
Clean production starts with questioning a product or service
to determine if it serves an important societal need or function.
Then a production system is designed to support the long-term
viability of the ecosystem and community within which each phase
operates. This necessitates making mindful decisions regarding
the size and location of the business; raw material selection,
extraction and processing; product manufacture, assembly or cultivation;
materials transport; packaging for distribution and marketing;
commercial and household usage; and the final fate of the product.
The products themselves remain clean from start to finish, which
means they are:
- non-toxic and uncontaminated with chemical residues;
- energy efficient;
- made from renewable materials which are routinely replenished
and extracted in a manner that preserves the viability of the
ecosystem from which they were taken;
- durable and reusable;
- easy to disassemble, repair and rebuild, and parts are interchangeable
with those in similar products;
- minimally and appropriately packaged for distribution, using
recycled and recyclable materials; and
- designed to be reintroduced into production systems or nature
after they no-longer serve their intended function.
Clean production does not include "end-of-pipe" pollution
controls such as filters and scrubbers, or chemical, physical
or biological treatment. Measures that reduce the volume of waste
by incineration or concentration, mask the hazard by dilution,
or transfer pollutants from one environmental medium to another,
are also excluded.
Waste management hierarchy
Avoidance, reduction, reuse, recycling, recovery, and residue
disposal.
Substitution
The substitution of hazardous substances by less hazardous substances
or preferably non-hazardous substances where such alternatives
are available.
Polluter and exploiter pays
The cost and consequences of pollution and unsustainable resource
exploitation must be borne entirely by those responsible for creating/undertaking
it and should not be subsidised by the taxpayer.
The broader exploiter pays principle requires that the primary
exploiter(s) of a living or non-living natural resource must bear
the cost of any overexploitation for which they are responsible
and should not be subsidised by the consumer or taxpayer. For
example, the cost of overexploiting a fish stock, in terms of
denied opportunity for other fishers, coastal communities or generations
to derive an income from that fish stock, should be borne by the
fishers responsible, and not by other sectors of society or society
in general.
In all cases, the application of the polluter/exploiter pays
principle should act as a significant deterrent measure through
association with appropriate punitive measures.
Good environmental governance
Five principles underpin good governance: openness, participation,
accountability, effectiveness and coherence. Each principle is
important for establishing more democratic governance including
with regard to environmental decision-making. They underpin democracy
and the rule of law, and they apply to all levels of government:
global, EU, national, regional and local.
Openness. The State Organisations should work in a more
open and transparent manner. They should actively communicate
about what the Government does and the decisions it takes. They
should use language that is accessible and understandable for
the general public in order to improve the confidence in the State
Organisations and environmental policy-making.
Participation. The quality, relevance and effectiveness
of Government policies depend on ensuring wide participation by
civil society throughout the policy chain, from conception to
implementation. Improved participation is likely to create more
confidence in the end result and in the State Organisations that
deliver policies. Participation crucially depends on central government
following an inclusive approach when developing and implementing
policies, i.e. an approach that through consultation and dialogue
involves all relevant stakeholders, including interested members
of the public, and reflects the range of values held by civil
society in relation to the marine environment. This must also
involve on-going consultation with stakeholders, and full, unrestricted
(by expense or location) and timely access to all data and information
concerning the environment and all development plans and activities
which are likely to affect them or in which they have an interest.
Accountability. Roles in the legislative and executive
processes need to be clearer. Each of the State Organisations
must explain and take responsibility for what it does. But there
is also a need for greater clarity and responsibility from the
Government and all those involved in developing and implementing
policy at whatever level.
Effectiveness. Policies must be effective and timely,
delivering what is needed on the basis of clear objectives, an
evaluation of future impact and, where available, of past experience.
Effectiveness also depends on implementing policies in a proportionate
manner and on taking decisions at the most appropriate level.
The role of civil society in the enforcement of environmental
laws should be strengthened, which of course requires effective
and efficient access to administrative and independent judicial
procedures, including remedies and redress for environmental harm
and the threat of such harm.
Coherence. Policies and action must be coherent and easily
understood. Coherence requires political leadership and a strong
responsibility on the part of the State Organisations to ensure
a consistent approach.
Each principle is important by itself. But they cannot be achieved
through separate actions. Policies can no longer be effective
unless they are prepared, implemented and enforced in a more inclusive
way.
Social and economic justice
The implementation and strengthening of the global principles
enshrined by the representatives of the peoples of the world as
expressed in the Johannesburg Declaration on Sustainable Development
and accompanying Plan of Implementation resulting from the United
Nations World Summit on Sustainable Development, Johannesburg,
September 2002.
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